Frequently Asked Questions

The Qur’an is the Islamic holy scripture, which Muslims believe was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) by the Archangel Gabriel over a period of twenty three years.  Its Arabic text has survived unchanged for over fourteen centuries, and it is the primary source of authority in Islam, complemented by the Ahadith (traditions or sayings of the Prophet) and the historically developed canons of Islamic law or Shari'a. The Qur’an consists of 114 suras or chapters, which are in turn composed of  ayāt  or ‘verses’ (sing. ayah).  The suras are traditionally divided into Meccan and Medinan. The earlier suras revealed at Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad and Islam, tend to be shorter, proclaiming God’s Oneness, establishing the Prophet’s credentials, addressing issues of social justice, and reminding people of impending judgment. The later suras, revealed after the Prophet’s migration to Medina, are longer, more prosaic, and concern: laws and regulations of various aspects of  domestic and social life such as marriage, inheritance, and business transactions; the need to establish a united community; connections with the ‘People of the Book’, and stories of earlier prophets.

The literary characteristics of the Qur’an are striking, notwithstanding its expressed desire to dissociate itself from poetry as such and to emphasize its nature as divine revelation (LXIX: 40-43). Among its literary qualities are the use of rhythmic prose (analogous with the Arabic prose form known as saj’), irregular rhythm, numerous varieties of rhyme, rhetorical imperatives (as in the passage above, beginning with ‘Say’), questions, and oaths. The  Qur’an states on numerous occasions that it uses the language of metaphor or simile, and in a renowned passage it distinguishes between its own use of ‘clear’ passages (mukhamat) and ‘figurative’ passages (mutashabihat), the true meaning of the latter being known only to God (III: 7). One of the most celebrated instances of a figurative passage is the one beginning “God is the Light of the Heavens and of the Earth” (Q 24: 35). Much has been written on the figurative and mystical significance of the “Light” this passage.

It should be mentioned that the voice of the Qur’an extends over many rhetorical and performative situations: God addressing the Prophet and various other persons as well as humankind in general and the believers in particular; God speaking in parables; sometimes in the first-person and sometimes in the third-person; God recounting historical events and moral lessons, as well as dialogues between historical figures; and God offering arguments and explaining the signs and manifestations of His existence.

Hence, it would be misconceived to view the Qur’an as an ahistorical text, divorced from interaction with audience or language. The Qur’an itself repudiates such a reductive approach via a number of strategies: its emphasis on parable and metaphor; its attention to its audience; its self-consciousness of its position in history and the contextual import of its own message; its awareness of its own history as a text; its consciousness of its own linguistic force; and  its recalcitrance toward any potential confusion of its own unique discourse with other discourses, such as poetry.

There has existed a vast body of exegesis of the Qur'an, ranging from the early commentary of Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-922) to the unfinished work of the Egyptian modernist Muhammad 'Abduh (1849-1905) and the interpretations of Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958) and Kenneth Cragg. The problems -- of historical contextualisation, etymology and law -- occupying these commentators have overlapped to some extent with those confronted by translators of the Qur'an. Characteristic problems have included: the abrogation of certain earlier verses by subsequent revelations; the chronology and coherence of the whole; the historical departure of some Arabic words from their original meaning in the Qur'an; and the semantic comprehensiveness or distinctness of certain Arabic words, equally resistant to translation.

The history of translation of the Qur'an reveals that the study of Islam has been a phenomenon of Western politics, scholarship and thought as much as it has been a governing imperative of the Islamic political, cultural and legal world. Modern critical approaches in particular have been conducted largely by Western scholars, especially by Muslims trained in Western as well as Eastern traditions. The first Western translation of the Qur'an was completed in 1143 by the English scholar Robertus Retenensis, under direction from Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny. Motivated by hostile intentions, this version was profoundly inaccurate yet served as the basis for early European translations. Equally distinguished by its inaccuracies was Alexander Ross's English rendering of the 1647 French translation published by Andre du Ryer. Ross offered no claim to scholarly impartiality, urging in his preface that the Qur'an was a repository of ‘follies’ which would confirm the ‘health’ of Christianity. In 1649 the Arabic text of the Qur'an was published in Hamburg; availing himself of this as well as a new Latin version (1698) by Ludovico Maracci, George Sale produced a more accurate English version in 1734. Again, Sale's endeavours were polemical regarding both Islam and Catholicism: he viewed the exposure of the ‘imposture’ of Islam and its overthrow as a ‘glory’ reserved for Protestants. Sale's was the standard text for English readers until the late nineteenth century; it was the version which stood behind Edward Gibbon's ambivalent assessment of Muhammad.

The methods of the Higher Criticism, applied to the Christian Gospels in the nineteenth century, eventually made their impact on Qur'anic translation and exegesis: J.M. Rodwell's translation changed the order of the suras or Qur'anic chapters and his assessment of Muhammad as inspired by a sincere monotheism was certainly more impartial and ‘scientific’ than that of his predecessors. Other notable translations have included those by Henry Edward Palmer (1880) and Marmaduke Pickthall (1930), an English convert to Islam. A.J. Arberry's version (1955) attempts to recapture the rhetorical and rhythmical patterns which lie behind the splendour of the original. Since then, numerous other renderings have appeared, notably by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem (2004) and by Muslim scholars such as Abdullah Yusuf Ali: these have attempted to grapple with the problems enumerated above in the light of increasingly sophisticated historical and philological research as well as of the need to translate the spirit of the Qur'an into idioms of relevance to the twentieth century. The goal of the poet/translator, Thomas Cleary (The Qur’an – A New Translation, 2007), was singular and subtle: how well, or badly, does each translator, or group of translators, “produce a work which can be orally arresting and eliciting an aroma of the original Arabic”?

There are many strategies for translating the Qur’an, but all relate to one choice, either directly or indirectly, in a preface or introduction or in the actual verse-by-verse renditions. Let us call it the unending pendulum. It is intrinsic to all translation effort, but here it rests on a distinct dilemma: which counts more – accuracy or access? Accuracy swings the pendulum toward the source language, and the Arabic Qur’an. It pursues etymological purity but also stylistic conventions that echo, and so confirm, the authenticity of early 7th century Arabia. Access swings the pendulum toward the receiver or host language. It accents rhetorical clarity and ease of recognition.  It tilts toward the mindset of those who are non-Muslim rather than Muslim, or to those who are Muslim but speak English as their primary or native language.  And sometimes it appeals to both: Muslims as well as non-Muslim who live their lives and register their devotions as well as their duties in English idiom.

We laud Tom Cleary because he has made the choice for access in his translation, and even though he does not clarify who his intended audience is, he does outline a compelling strategy that is not equaled, or even approached, in any other introduction before ours. Crucial is our commitment to the Qur’an as an oral text. Its style and sound are integral to its sound. It is why we have emphasized saj’ or rhymed prose as a key element in our endeavor, explained at length in the Introduction (pp. xxxviii-xlvii). We do not try to replicate or supersede the Arabic Qur’an but instead to approach, with humility and awe, the deep structure of the Qur’anic text and allow it to be heard in an English verse echo of the original.

In the West there is a common image of Muslim women as “oppressed” yet also as impersonal and often as extreme. But what does the Qur’an actually say about women?

We might start at the beginning, with the story of Creation in the Qur’an. There are many dimensions to the Qur’anic account, but this is what it says about the creation of men and women:

189 It is He who created you

from a single soul, and

made a mate from him, so that

he might find comfort with her.

(Q7: 189)

As with the Biblical account of creation, the Qur’an states that God placed Adam and his mate (who is not named) in the Garden and forbade them to eat of a certain tree. But in contrast with the Biblical account, it is explicitly Satan (not merely a serpent) who tempts them; and, in even sharper contrast with the Bible, he does not first tempt Eve who is then blamed by Adam. Rather, he tempts them both together; and they both become aware of their transgression, after which they repent (Q7: 20-23).

Here is how the Qur’an describes the relationship of marriage between a man and a woman:

21 And among His signs is that
He created partners for you

from among yourselves,
that you might live together;
and He placed between you
love and mercy.
In this are signs
for a discerning people.

(Q30: 21)

Again, the message here is that the relation between the sexes is one of mutuality and tenderness, not one of harsh subordination. Another, well-known, verse describes men and women as each other’s “garments” (2: 187).

A great deal of controversy has occurred in the West concerning the attire of Muslim women, which is characteristically viewed as oppressive. Here is what the Qur’an says about the required modesty of both men and women:

30 Tell believing men
to lower their gaze

and preserve their chastity;

that is more decent for them,

and God is Aware

of all that they do.

(Q24: 30)

31 And tell believing women
to lower their gaze,

to preserve their chastity,

and not to expose their adornment

beyond what normally shows;

to draw their scarves over

their bosoms, and not to show

their adornment, except

to their husbands, their fathers…

(Q24: 31

What can clearly be observed if these consecutive verses are read together is that the requirement of modesty is a parallel injunction, applying to both sexes. It is not just that women must dress modestly. More importantly, both men and women must be modest in their demeanour: to “lower” one’s gaze can be interpreted literally to mean that one should not look at the other sex; but on a profounder level, it clearly indicates that one should not look intently at a member of the other gender, reducing her or him to an object of gratification. Perhaps the most salient point is that there is no gender “oppression” or suppression here: the requirement of sexual purity is equally incumbent on both sexes.

There are several other verses in the Qur’an which make important statements about women, concerning their rights in marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

In general, Islam views itself as confirming what is true in Judaism and Christianity: the Qur’an calls itself the “confirmation of previous scriptures” (12:111). Indeed, the Qur’an  urges the Prophet and his followers to proclaim their continuity with Jews and Christians (called ‘the People of the Book’):

Say, “We believe in God,

in what has been revealed to us,

and what was revealed to Abraham,

Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes,

and in the Books given to Moses,

Jesus, and the prophets,

from their Lord;

we make no distinction between

any among them,

and to God we submit our will.”

(Q2: 136)

This passage (in its original Arabic) is repeated almost verbatim in the subsequent sura (3: 84). On numerous occasions the Qur’an recounts stories of the Old Testament prophets, some of them, such as the story of Joseph, in great detail. It refers to the prophet Abraham as the ‘friend of God’. It also narrates the birth and miracles of Jesus, and devotes an entire sura to the Virgin Mary, who is revered “above all women” (Q3: 42). It is true that the Qur’an sometimes upbraids Jews and Christians but it does so for their failure to follow their own faith or to abide by their covenant with God (Q5:57-59; 62:5).

Perhaps the firmest proof of the continuity between these monotheistic religions lies in the reverence that the Qur’an accords Abraham and the Hebrew prophets. The prophet Abraham has a crucial role in Islamic belief and practice. The prophet Muhammad (S) and his companions believed in him as the founder of their faith. Muslims regard Muhammad (S) as the last in a series of prophets, including Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, all of whom appear in the Qur’an. Not only are Muslims required to remember Abraham in all their prayers but the direction in which they pray is towards a building in Mecca – the Ka`ba – which they believe was built by Abraham and his son Isma’il  (Q2: 127). In the Qur’an, God says to Abraham: “I will make you/An Imam [leader] of nations” (Q2:124). He also warns against the folly of turning away from the religion of Abraham (Q2:130). The Qur’an enjoins Muhammad (S) to say:

“God has declared the truth,

so follow the creed of Abraham,

who was pure in faith,  

never a polytheist.”

(Q3:95)

Moses is mentioned even more in the Qur’an; here are three verses, respectively about the Torah, the Christian Gospel, and the Qur’an, displaying clearly the continuity of these scriptures:

44 We revealed the Torah

[to Moses], bearing guidance

and light – by this,

the prophets submissive to God’s will

judged for the Jews,

as did the rabbis and the scholars,

by the Book of God

entrusted to their care, and to which 

they bore witness.

(Q5: 44)

46 We sent Jesus, son of Mary,

verifying what was with him

from the Torah;

We gave to him the Gospel,

bearing guidance and light,

verifying what was with him

from the Torah –

guidance and counsel

for those mindful of God.

(Q5: 46)

48 And We revealed the Book,

the Truth, to you, Prophet,

verifying the earlier Book,

preserving it.

(Q5: 48)

The Qur’an and Fasting: A Transformative Union in Ramadan

Imam John Starling

Ramadan, the month of fasting, is also the month in which the Qur’an was revealed. Allah tells us:

شَهْرُ رَمَضَانَ الَّذِي أُنزِلَ فِيهِ الْقُرْآنُ هُدًى لِلنَّاسِ وَبَيِّنَاتٍ مِنَ الْهُدَى وَالْفُرْقَانِ

“It was in the month of Ramadan

that the Qur’an was sent down,

as a guide for humankind,

with clear signs of guidance and

criteria of right and wrong.” (Al-Baqarah 2:185)

Ramadan is not only the month of the Qur’an’s revelation—it is the month of divine revelation in general. The Prophet ﷺ said:

نَزَلَتْ صُحُفُ إِبْرَاهِيمَ فِي أَوَّلِ لَيْلَةٍ مِنْ شَهْرِ رَمَضَانَ، وَأُنْزِلَتِ التَّوْرَاةُ لِسِتٍّ مَضَيْنَ مِنْ رَمَضَانَ، وَأُنْزِلَ الإِنْجِيلُ لِثَلاثَ عَشْرَةَ مِنْ رَمَضَانَ، وَأُنْزِلَ القُرْآنُ لِأَرْبَعٍ وَعِشْرِينَ خَلَتْ مِنْ رَمَضَانَ. (رواه أحمد)

“The scriptures of Ibrahim were revealed on the first night of Ramadan, the Torah was revealed on the sixth night of Ramadan, the Gospel was revealed on the thirteenth night of Ramadan, and the Qur’an was revealed on the twenty-fourth night of Ramadan.” (Narrated by Ahmad)

In the same verse that speaks of Ramadan as the month of revelation, Allah then commands:

فَمَن شَهِدَ مِنكُمُ ٱلشَّهْرَ فَلْيَصُمْهُ ۖ

“So whoever among you

is present during the month

should fast in it.” (Al-Baqarah 2:185)

Here, Allah establishes a direct correlation between revelation and fasting. It is as if He is saying: Because the Qur’an was revealed in this month, you must fast.

I would now like to take a closer look at that connection. On the surface, the most immediate response that comes to mind is gratitude.

The Prophet described acts of worship as expressions of gratitude, and fasting in particular was something he observed regularly as an act of thanks. When asked about his fasting on Mondays, he responded:

فِيهِ وُلِدْتُ وَفِيهِ أُنْزِلَ عَلَيَّ. (مسلم)

“It is the day on which I was born and the day in which revelation was sent down to me.” (Muslim)

Similarly, we see this pattern of gratitude reflected in the fast of Ashura.

When the Prophet arrived in Madinah and saw that the Jews were fasting on the 10th of Muharram, he inquired about the reason. He was told that they observed the fast in gratitude for the day when Allah saved Moses and his people from Pharaoh. Upon hearing this, the Prophet declared. “We are more entitled to Moses than they are.” So, he fasted that day and encouraged his followers to do the same.

Just as Moses fasted in gratitude for the salvation of his people, we fast in gratitude for our salvation through the Qur’an.

Not only will the Quran be in intercession for those who recite it, as the Prophet said,

الصيامُ والقرآنُ يَشْفَعانِ للعبدِ، يقولُ الصيامُ : أَيْ رَبِّ ! إني مَنَعْتُهُ الطعامَ والشهواتِ بالنهارِ، فشَفِّعْنِي فيه، ويقولُ القرآنُ : مَنَعْتُهُ النومَ بالليلِ، فشَفِّعْنِي فيه ؛ فيَشْفَعَانِ

“Fasting and the Qur’an intercede for the servant. Fasting says: ‘O Lord! I deprived him of food and desires during the day, so allow me to intercede for him.’ And the Qur’an says: ‘I kept him from sleeping at night, so allow me to intercede for him.’ So they are granted intercession.” (Ahmad)

But just as Allah split the Red Sea to grant Moses (peace be upon him) and his people an escape from Pharaoh’s oppression, He has also split through the veils of darkness and ignorance to grant us a path to salvation through the Qur’an’s guidance.

The Red Sea stood as an impassable barrier, yet by Allah’s command, it parted, leading the believers to freedom and drowning their enemy behind them. Likewise, the Qur’an is a divine opening—cleaving through confusion and misguidance, providing clarity and a way out for those trapped in the waves of worldly distractions and spiritual heedlessness.

Just as Moses emerged on the other shore in safety, we, through the Qur’an, are guided toward a shore of spiritual awakening, where our souls find refuge in divine truth.

In gratitude for this miraculous deliverance, Moses fasted on the Day of Ashura, recognizing Allah’s mercy in granting them salvation. Similarly, we fast in Ramadan as an expression of gratitude for one of the greatest of all blessings—the revelation of the Qur’an, which leads us from darkness to light, from bondage to freedom, and from heedlessness to divine presence.

The correlation between fasting and the Quran doesn’t stop there, but goes even deeper.

Both are acts of devotion that work together to purify the heart and elevate the believer. Fasting is not merely abstinence from food and drink—it is a means of softening the heart so that it can truly absorb the light of the Qur’an.

In essence, fasting prepares the heart by freeing it from worldly distractions.

Throughout the year, our hearts are weighed down by indulgence—excessive food, entertainment, social distractions, and sins.

The spiritual masters of our tradition remind us that “the heart cannot be filled with the light of Allah while it is drowning in the desires of the world like excessive eating.”

يُروى عن لقمان الحكيم أنه قال لابنه “يا بُنَيَّ، إذا امتلأتِ المَعِدَةُ نامَتِ الفِكْرَةُ، وخَرَسَتِ الحِكْمَةُ، وقَعَدَتِ الأعضاءُ عنِ العِبادةِ”

Imam al-Ghazali relates in his Ihya that Luqman the Wise advised his son saying, “O my son, when the stomach is full, reflection goes dormant, wisdom is silenced, and the limbs are restrained from worship.”

Fasting removes these distractions and clears the heart’s path toward Allah’s guidance.

Hunger also softens the heart. Our great masters explain that when the stomach is full, the heart becomes hard and lazy in worship.

وقال الفُضَيلُ: (ثَلاثُ خِصالٍ تُقَسِّي القَلبَ: كَثرةُ الأكلِ، وكَثرةُ النَّومِ، وكَثرةُ الكَلامِ)

Al-Fudayl said there are three qualities that harden the heart, excessive eating, sleeping, and talking.

When hunger is felt for the sake of Allah, the heart softens, becoming more receptive to divine wisdom.

Fasting also breaks the ego, allowing for guidance to be welcomed and received.

Badi’al-Zaman in his Wisdoms and Secrets said, that fasting in Ramadan directly shatters the ego’s illusion of lordship, forcing it to recognize its servitude and exposing its helplessness. This act carries profound wisdoms. One of them is that the ego (ego) resists acknowledging its Lord—it craves dominion, inflating itself with a tyrannical arrogance, like that of Pharaoh. Even when it is disciplined or subdued, the root of this imagined self-sufficiency remains. It does not break, nor does it submit, except before the crushing force of hunger.

The fast of Ramadan therefore delivers a decisive blow to the self’s arrogance, breaking its defiance and unveiling its true weakness, dependence, and need.

It teaches the ego what it truly is.

It is said that Allah once asked the ego: “Who am I, and who are you?” The ego replied: “I am me, and You are You.” So, Allah punished it and cast it into Hell, then asked again: “Who am I, and who are you?” Once more, it stubbornly responded: “I am me, and You are You.” No matter how much torment it endured, it would not let go of its ego.

Then, Allah disciplined it with hunger—leaving it to starve. When He asked again: “Who am I, and who are you?” the ego finally surrendered: “You are my Lord, the Most Merciful, and I am Your powerless servant.”

Without taming the ego, we close ourselves off from Allah’s guidance. A heart weighed down by arrogance will continue to feel self-sufficient—like a lost traveler who stubbornly refuses to ask for directions. But fasting is our opportunity to break that illusion, to humble ourselves before our Creator, and to rediscover our need for Him. So let us make the most of our fasts—not just by abstaining from food and drink, but by unlocking its deeper wisdoms—so that by the end of Ramadan, we emerge as better believers, truly deserving of the joy that comes with Eid.

Part 2

Now that we have uncovered the deep connection between fasting and the Qur’an, what is the first lesson we should seek as we begin our recitation this month? It is not merely something to learn, but something to experience—a spiritual awakening. Before we can truly absorb the guidance of Allah’s words, our hearts must first be shaken from heedlessness. And to access this awakening, we must return to the very first revelation—Surat al-`Alaq, the divine call to awareness.

It was in the darkness of the Cave of Hira, during this blessed month, that the Prophet ﷺ received the words that would transform humanity:

ٱقْرَأْ بِٱسْمِ رَبِّكَ ٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ

“Read in the name of your Lord who created.” (Al-`Alaq 96:1)

This command was not merely a call to literacy—it was a call to awakening. The Qur’an did not begin with laws or stories, but with a powerful reminder of who Allah is: the Creator, the One who brought us from nothing, the One who sustains us, and the One to whom we will inevitably return.

After these opening words, Allah immediately warns of arrogance—the very trait that leads to misguidance and sin:

كَلَّا إِنَّ ٱلْإِنسَٰنَ لَيَطْغَىٰ. أَن رَّءَاهُ ٱسْتَغْنَىٰ

“But humans transgress

all bounds,

thinking themselves

self-sufficient.” (Al-`Alaq 96:6-7)

This is the root of ghaflah (heedlessness), the opposite of yaqadha (awakening). It is the illusion of independence—the false belief that we are in control and do not need Allah. But fasting shatters this deception. The hunger of Ramadan teaches us the same lesson that the Qur’an does: we are not self-sufficient. Our strength, our provision, and our very existence are in Allah’s hands. When the ego is tamed by hunger, its arrogance is subdued, making it receptive to divine guidance.

This realization is the foundation of yaqadha—awakening to the fact that we are not in control, that we exist under Allah’s constant watch, and that we are accountable for our actions.

In the same surah, Allah warns of those who reject His guidance:

أَرَءَيْتَ ٱلَّذِى يَنْهَىٰ. عَبْدًا إِذَا صَلَّىٰ

“Do you observe the person

who prevents

Our servant from prayer?” (Al-`Alaq 96:9-10)

Then comes the piercing question:

أَلَمْ يَعْلَم بِأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَرَىٰ

“Does he not know

that God observes?” (Al-`Alaq 96:14)

This is the wake-up call of the Qur’an. The first revealed surah does not merely teach us that Allah exists—it forces us to confront the reality that He is always watching. Nothing is hidden from Him. Every thought, every action, every moment is known to Him.

Without this awareness, the heart remains asleep. We move through life heedlessly, absorbed in distractions, feeling distant from our Creator. But the moment we internalize this truth—that Allah sees us—we step into yaqadha.

The next step in yaqadha is realizing that not only does Allah see all that we do, but that we are moving toward a moment of ultimate accountability before Him. He reminds us:

إِنَّ إِلَىٰ رَبِّكَ ٱلرُّجْعَىٰ

“all shall return to your Lord.” (Al-`Alaq 96:8)

This is the reality the ego tries to ignore. It transgresses, believing it is free to do as it pleases. But in truth, we are always moving toward our inevitable return to Allah. No action is hidden, no moment overlooked—every breath, every deed, every thought is recorded, and one day we will stand before Him.

If we do not awaken to this reality and put an end to our heedlessness, our arrogance will be our downfall.

Let this be the Ramadan in which we truly awaken. Let hunger humble us, let the Qur’an guide us, and let our hearts break free from heedlessness so that we may return to Allah as grateful servants.

The Arabic word Allah is a contraction of the words al-ilah which mean “the God.”  Hence the word Allah is used to denote God not only by Muslims but also by Arab Christians. The Qur’an makes it clear that this is the same God that is worshipped by Jews and Christians.   

The most important attribute of Allah is absolute Oneness or Unity. This is where the Qur’anic conception of God differs from the Christian notion of God as a trinity (which has been orthodox since the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D.). The unity of God or tawhid  furnishes the most basic principle of the Islamic faith, and is enshrined in the following short surah or chapter of the Qur’an:

1 Say, He is God, the One,

2 God, the Absolute.                                                   

3 Neither did He beget,

nor was He begotten.

4 His like or equal there is none.

(Q112: 1-4)

This verse clearly states that God is one and that His unity has a number of dimensions. Firstly, He is transcendent: being eternal, He is not subject to the restrictions of time and space. Secondly, in contrast with the orthodox Christian notion, He is not part of any cycle of life or death or reproduction. He is not a father nor does He have offspring. Finally, He is absolute in His uniqueness. While human beings can aspire to some of the qualities of God, such as justice or forgiveness, none can attain to His actual qualities or His status. Nor is He susceptible to visual or any other form of representation.

In fact, the Qur’an and Islamic traditions speak of the “ninety-nine names” of Allah. The Qur’an states three times that “the most beautiful names” belong to God. Each of these names denotes a divine attribute or quality. Some of the major names or attributes of God  are: al-Rahmān, the All-Merciful; al-Rahīm, the Ever Merciful, al-Mālik, the Sovereign or King, al-Khāliq, the Creator, al-Ghaffār, the Ever Forgiving, al-`Alīm, the All-Knowing, as-Samī`, the All-Hearing, al-Basīr, the All-Seeing, al-Hakam, the Judge, al-Wadūd, the Most Loving, al-Haqq, the Truth, and al-Nūr, the Light. These qualities, all of which are used in the Qur’an to denote God, give a sense of the range of His powers and His essential disposition.

Here is Ayat al-Kursi, one of the most well-known and often-recited verses of the Qur’an, which enshrines many of these divine attributes:

255 God – there is no god but He,

the Living, the Self-Subsisting.

Never can slumber seize Him,

nor sleep. To Him belongs

all that is in the heavens, and

all that is on the earth.

Who can intercede with Him

except by His leave? He knows

what lies ahead, and

what lies behind.

None can approach His Knowing,

only as He wills.

His throne extends

over the heavens and the earth,

which He guards and preserves

with no fatigue,

for He is Most High,

Supreme.

(Q2: 255)

According to this verse: God transcends all human limitation; He is entirely self-sufficient; He is the owner of life; He accepts intercession from whom He will; His knowledge is all-encompassing and He grants its light to whom He will; His sovereignty is absolute. However, while God is here described as transcendent in his qualities of uniqueness, universality and eternity, this verse makes it clear that He is also immanent, that His presence extends throughout creation: ironically, his “throne,” the very seat and symbol of His power, is not somehow distant but extends through the heavens and the earth. Many other verses of the Qur’an state that His signs exist everywhere.  God is also immanent in His qualities of mercy and forgiveness, in the nurturing of which humans come closer to Him. The Qur’an contains many beautiful passages which both illustrate the actual qualities of the Islamic conception of God and also demonstrate that this God is also the God of Judaism and Christianity.

What is the definition of a Muslim, according to the Qur’an? What is the basic pattern of behavior for a Muslim? What are the basic responsibilities and duties of Muslims? Just as the word “Islam” means “submission” to the will of God, so the word “Muslim” simply means “one who submits” to God’s will. It is well-known that there are “five pillars” of Islam: profession of faith, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage. Some of these pillars are included in this verse from the Qur’an which stipulates the essential obligations of a Muslim, and which covers most aspects of our lives:

177 Righteousness

does not reside
in turning your faces

toward East or West;
rather, it resides in those –

who believe in God

and the last day,
in the angels, the Book,
and the prophets;

who give their wealth

for love of Him, for kin,
for orphans, the needy,

the traveler, for those who ask,
and for freeing slaves;

who are steadfast in prayer,
who give in charity,
keeping their covenants;

who suffer in patience

hardship, pain, and

times of conflict –

they are the ones

who speak truth, and

they are the ones

mindful of God.

(Q2: 177)

This verse states clearly that the essence of piety or righteousness does not consist merely in mechanical and external observances. Rather, it lies in appropriate belief, in regular prayer, in charity towards various groups of people, in the honouring of one’s contractual obligations, in the patient enduring of  suffering or misfortune and, above all, in an inward condition – a sincere and truthful consciousness of God. These are the qualities of a Muslim.

Other verses in the Qur’an lay down additional obligations, such as fasting during the month of Ramadan and making a pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad, at least once during one’s lifetime. But, perhaps more tellingly, the Qur’an also contains numerous verses which reinforce the idea that true belief is something not merely external and expressed in rituals but rather profoundly internal, lying deep within a person’s psyche and spiritual disposition. In this respect, the message brought by Muhammad bears an intense kinship with the inward purity demanded by Jesus of his followers. Here is one example:

225 God will not call you to account

for oaths you spoke unintentionally,

but He will call you to account

for what your hearts have earned – 

God is Forgiving, Most Forbearing.

(Q2: 225)

The word jihad does not mean “war” but “struggle”: the greater jihad is a struggle against one's own lower desires; the lesser jihad is a defensive struggle against tyranny and oppression. War in the Qur’an is never described as “holy.” As Reza Aslan and others have pointed out, the term “holy war” originated not with Islam but with the Crusades, which were in reality struggles for land and trade routes. The doctrine of jihad was developed in the Qur’an partly to differentiate between combatants and civilians: the killing of women, children, monks, rabbis and the elderly was strictly forbidden; the torture of prisoners, rape and any kind of molestation were all outlawed. Essentially, jihad is strictly a defensive war, as shown by the following verses:

39 Permission to fight is given

to those who are attacked,

for they have been wronged.

And God is All Powerful

in His support of them –

(Q22: 39)

40 those driven out of their homes unjustly

– merely for saying, “Our Lord is the One God.”

If God did not restrain some people

by means of others, then monasteries,

churches, synagogues, and mosques

– where the name of God

is remembered often – would be torn down.

God will help those who help His cause,

for God is Supremely Strong, Almighty;

(Q22: 40)

This second verse also makes it clear that tyranny and oppression should be resisted, in the name of freedom of religion, rights of property and person. The verse is remarkable for its insistence that all places of monotheistic worship, including churches and synagogues, should be protected.  And here is a verse which negates any simplistic view that somehow Muslims were always in a posture of war with their opponents:

7 It may be that God will induce

love between you and those

you held as enemies,

for God is All Powerful,

and God is Forgiving,

Ever Merciful.

(Q60: 7)

Indeed, the Qur’an makes it clear that religion cannot be forced upon people:

256 Let there be no compulsion

in religion; true guidance is now

distinct from error.

(Q2: 256)

The common image in the West of Islam having been spread by the sword is misconceived. The Muslim conquerors of the Byzantine and Persian empires did not force their subject peoples to convert: in fact, as Aslan and others have pointed out, Arab Muslims actually formed an elite, which was exclusive and hardly easy to join. Moreover, Jews were persecuted in the Byzantine Empire, often forced to convert to Christianity under penalty of death. In Muslim lands, both Jews and Christians had the status of “protected peoples” (dhimmi), neither required nor encouraged to convert. They were obliged to pay a “protection tax” (jizyah) since they were exempted from military service.

The technical term for Islamic law is shari`ah, which literally means “path” or “way.” The shari`ah is based primarily upon the Qur’an and the sunnah or practice of the Prophet, as well as certain other principles worked out by Islamic jurists. The shari`ah was formulated essentially during the eighth and ninth centuries C.E. by the four so-called schools of Islamic law. Essentially, the shari`ah regulates all aspects of a Muslim’s life: not only her relationships with the state and other individuals but also her obligations to God and her own conscience. Its scope extends over ethical and religious duties, the laws of marriage, divorce and inheritance, as well as criminal law.

Although Islamic law is often said to have been solidified by the tenth century, there have been several attempts in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to apply Islamic law to modern situations. It is worth recalling that there is no one document which enshrines the shari`ah and that it is subject to interpretation by the vast array of communities which comprise the so-called Islamic world. Shari`ah concerns mostly personal religious observances.

The Qur’an stipulates the basic duties of a Muslim such as prayer (Q2: 3), fasting during the month of Ramadan (Q2: 183-185), the giving of charity (Q9: 60), and the performance of pilgrimage (Q2: 196-200). All of these rules are contained and elaborated in the shari`ah. Perhaps what has aroused most controversy in recent times is a small portion of the penal code of the shari`ah, especially that which deals with theft and adultery. It is well-known even in the West that the Qur’an prescribes cutting off a hand as the punishment for theft:

38 As for the thief – male and female –
cut off their hands:
the recompense they earned –
an example, from God –
for God is Almighty, All Wise.

                                                (Q5: 38)

However, it is customary to ignore the very next verse which reads:

39 But God will relent, pardoning

those who repent after their crime,

reforming themselves –

for He is Forgiving, Ever Merciful.

(Q5: 39)

Also, people are often unaware that the shari`ah as formulated by Muslim jurists imposes very strict conditions upon the exercise of this punishment. Petty thefts do not fall under this rule, nor does theft under conditions of hardship or the need for survival. An Islamic government is obliged to provide the basic necessities of life for its citizens, and if it fails in this responsibility, this law cannot legitimately be enforced. Similar constraints apply to the punishments for murder and adultery.

There are at least three kinds of social principles in the Qur’an.  The first relates to authority in the community: The Qur’an commands or commends the process of shura or consultative decision-making, as shown by this verse which states that the people chosen to be near God will include:

38 those who answer their Lord,

are steadfast in prayer,

and settle their affairs

by mutual consultation,

and who give [in charity]

from what We have given them;

(Q42: 38)

This verse appears to include mutual consultation as part of the normal fabric of a virtuous life.

Secondly, the Qur’an presents a vision of economic practice as grounded upon moral and social responsibility. Freedom of trade is allowed, with mutual consent, but we are answerable for how we use our wealth and also how we make it:

29 You who believe,

do not devour one another’s

property wrongfully – 

rather, let there be trade

by mutual consent.

Nor kill one another.

God is Ever Merciful to you. 

(Q4: 29)         

276 God will nullify gain from usury

and bless deeds of charity

with increase, for God

dislikes ungrateful sinners.

(Q2:276)

The second verse here reinforces the Qur’an’s earlier prohibition of usury, as well as the obligation to undertake charity.

And finally, there are the moral principles and human rights espoused by the Quran, such as honesty in business transactions and the perpetual need for justice:

58 God commands you to repay

your trusts to their owners,

and when you judge between people,

judge with justice.

Excellent is the advice

God gives you in this – 

God is All Hearing, All Seeing.

(Q4: 58)

The Qur’an espouses many other values such as individual responsibility (Q6: 164), and it recognizes the potential corruption of religious clerics (Q9: 34). What is often not recognized about the Qur’an is its statements about pluralism:

13 Humankind, We created you

from a male and a female, then

We made you into nations and tribes,

that you might know one another.

The most noble of you in God’s sight

is the most mindful of Him –

God is All Knowing, All Aware.

(Q49: 13)

Finally, there is as astonishing story in the Qur’an which compellingly reveals the essentially egalitarian message of the entire book, whereby kings and beggars are differentiated only the basis of their piety. In sura 80, verses 1-10, the prophet Muhammad (S) is himself reprimanded by God for turning away from a blind man who came to him for guidance. The prophet was busy talking with one of the important and rich leaders of the Quraysh, hoping to convert him to Islam. The Qur’an makes clear that in God’s eyes, the blind man may have had more potential for spiritual understanding:

1 [The Prophet] frowned,
and turned away

2 because the blind man

came to him.

3 Prophet, how would you know –

perhaps he might purge himself of sin,

4 or heed the teaching

that might profit him?

5 Yet some uncaring person

6 claims your attention

7 – though you are not to blame

if he fails to purge himself of sin –

8 while the one who came to you

[eagerly] in haste,

9 and in awe,

10 you dismiss.

11 Why, no! This teaching is

12 for any who would heed it,

13 [inscribed] in honored scrolls,

14 exalted, and kept pure,

15 borne by the hands of scribes

16 who are noble and righteous. 

(Q80: 1-16)

This beautiful passage makes it clear that in the eyes of God, a disabled person, often treated as insignificant, is just as important and just as worthy of attention – and by implication, has just as many rights – as a rich and powerful leader. Hence the Qur’an can be seen as espousing human rights, equality before God, and the need to conduct affairs with justice and in mutual consultation.